A salient example is that of south-eastern Angola. During the Angolan civil war, beginning in 1980, populations of elephants in the south east of that country were decimated and the ivory was used to pay for arms. Estimates of the numbers of elephants killed or displaced range from thousands to hundreds of thousands, with particular reference to the Luiana Partial Reserve in which the Angolan separatist military force had its headquarters (Chase & Griffin, 2011). Chase and Griffin (2009) report that many elephants were probably displaced south into Namibia and Botswana, their plight exacerbated by the erection of wildlife fences and other human activities. By the end of the war in 2002 there were few, if any, remaining elephants in Luiana Partial Reserve. Almost immediately following the cessation of violence, aerial surveys and telemetry revealed a large increase in numbers as elephants recolonized south-eastern Angola (Chase & Griffin, 2011). Lindsay, Chase, Landen, and Nowak (2017) report that between 2002 and 2009

…Botswana's refugee elephants were recorded as moving back to southeastern Angola, repopulating their ancestral homeland. But with increased poaching, starting in 2010, cross-border movements have declined by up to 85%. Many elephants are no longer embarking on these epic transboundary migrations… In recent times elephants have once again sought refuge, and as a result are more resident, in Botswana.

Elephants choose to avoid dangerous areas, sometimes for many years (Jachowski, Slotow, & Millspaugh, 2012). In other cases, elephants are restricted in their movements by anthropogenic barriers, such as wildlife fencing (Loarie, Aarde, & Pimm, 2009). It is clear that some persecuted elephants are unable to avail themselves of the protection of their country and are, in some cases, unwilling due to their fear of persecution.